From Cortés to Apache WARS: The Silver Trail Through the Southwest.
The Spanish crown, under King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Isabella I of Castile, sought to discover new lands in the Americas for wealth and expansion.
Their primary motivation was to find rich sources of silver and gold, which were believed to be abundant in these unexplored territories.
After Columbus's initial voyages, the Spanish monarchs funded further expeditions to explore Mexico and South America.
These ventures were driven by the desire to secure valuable resources and establish Spanish dominion over new territories. The conquest of the Aztec Empire by Hernán Cortés in 1519-1521 was a significant milestone, revealing vast riches that fueled further exploration and conquest in the region
More than 90% of the Gold and Silver in the image below was under Spanish control.
Montezuma’s offering of gold to Cortés and his men was done in the hope that the ‘gods’ would go away.
After Hernán Cortés conquered the Aztecs in 1521, the Spanish continued their expansion in the Americas through a series of expeditions led by other conquistadors.
Hernan Cortez’s Golden Signet Ring
These expeditions were aimed at consolidating Spanish control over vast territories and exploiting the rich mineral resources, particularly silver, which were found in the newly conquered lands. The following sections provide an overview of the major silver mines in Mexico, Peru, Argentina, and Bolivia that were controlled by Spain during the colonial period.
Mexico
Zacatecas: Discovered in 1546 by Juan de Tolosa, Zacatecas became one of the most significant silver mining centers in Mexico. The mines in this region produced vast amounts of silver, contributing significantly to the Spanish economy.
Guanajuato: The mines in Guanajuato were discovered in the mid-16th century and became highly productive, especially the Valenciana mine, which was one of the richest in the world during the 18th century.
Pachuca and Real del Monte: These mines were among the earliest discovered in Mexico, with mining activities starting in the 1550s. They were known for their silver production and technological innovations in mining techniques.
San Luis Potosí: Founded in 1592, this area became another important mining center, with the discovery of rich silver deposits.
Peru
Potosí: Discovered in 1545, Potosí, located in present-day Bolivia, was one of the richest silver mining centers in the world. The Cerro Rico (Rich Hill) at Potosí became legendary for its vast silver deposits, which fueled the Spanish economy for centuries.
Huancavelica: Although primarily known for its mercury mines, Huancavelica was crucial for silver production as mercury was used in the amalgamation process to extract silver from ore.
Cerro de Pasco: Mining in Cerro de Pasco began in the early 17th century, and it became an important center for silver extraction in Peru.
Bolivia
Potosí: As mentioned, Potosí was located in present-day Bolivia and was the most significant silver mining site during the Spanish colonial period. The wealth extracted from Potosí played a crucial role in the global economy of the time.
Argentina
Jujuy: While not as prominent as other regions, Jujuy in northern Argentina saw some silver mining activities during the colonial period. The Spanish exploited the mineral resources here to a lesser extent compared to other areas.
The discovery and exploitation of these silver mines were instrumental in establishing the Spanish colonial economy. The mines not only provided immense wealth to the Spanish crown but also facilitated the development of infrastructure and settlements in the Americas.
The Copper Canyon region has a rich history of silver and gold mining dating back to the mid-19th century. Here's an overview of the mining history in the area, including notable mines and cities:
Early Discoveries
Silver was first discovered in Galena Canyon in 1863, followed by copper and silver discoveries in Copper Canyon in 1864. This sparked the initial mining interest in the region.
Key Mining Areas and Mines
Copper Canyon
Virgin copper vein: The first development in the district occurred here in 1864.
East and West orebodies: These copper-gold skarn deposits were mined in the 1970s.
Fortitude deposit: A world-class gold-silver skarn deposit discovered in 1980.
Galena Canyon
Early silver discoveries in 1863 led to mining activities in this area.
Philadelphia Canyon
Gold was discovered here in 1909, rejuvenating mining in the district.
Tomboy-Minnie deposits
These were highly sulfidized replacement ore bodies rich in gold and silver.
Surprise Mine
Located in Copper Basin, northeast of Copper Canyon, it was developed in the 1980s for gold production.
Mining Companies and Operations
Copper Canyon Mining Company: Formed in 1916, it became a major producer of copper during World War I.
Duval Corporation: Acquired properties in 1961 and opened the Copper Canyon and Copper Basin open pit mines in 1967.
Battle Mountain Gold Company: Took over operations in 1985, focusing primarily on gold production.
Newmont Mining Corporation: Acquired the properties in 2001 and developed the Phoenix Mine.
Production and Economic Impact
Between 1871 and 1954, the Copper Canyon Mine produced over 9.6 million pounds of copper, 48,000 ounces of gold, and 860,000 ounces of silver.
The West orebody yielded about 3.6 million metric tonnes of ore averaging 0.79% copper, 0.86 g/t gold, and 16.1 g/t silver in the 1970s.
From 1980 to 1993, the Fortitude deposit alone produced 10.86 million metric tonnes of ore averaging 6 g/t gold and 28 g/t silver.
Mining Methods and Technology
Initially, mining was conducted underground through shafts and drifts. In the 1960s and 1970s, operations transitioned to open-pit mining. The shift from copper to gold production in the late 1970s led to the introduction of cyanide leaching and carbon-in-pulp adsorption technologies.
Cities and Settlements
While specific cities aren't mentioned in the search results, the mining activities were centered around Battle Mountain, Nevada. The development of mines in the Copper Canyon area significantly contributed to the growth and economic importance of Battle Mountain as a mining center.This history showcases the evolution of mining in the Copper Canyon region, from early silver and copper discoveries to later emphasis on gold production, reflecting changing market conditions and technological advancements in the mining industry.
SilverWars in USA, US Army vs Apaches
The involvement of the U.S. Army in conflicts near silver mines in New Mexico and Arizona primarily stemmed from tensions between settlers, miners, and the Apache tribes, particularly during the Apache Wars. Here's a detailed account of the events surrounding these conflicts:
Background and Tensions
Apache Resistance: The Southern Apaches, especially the Chiricahua branch, strongly resisted the encroachment of miners and settlers on their lands in southwestern New Mexico and Arizona. This resistance was driven by the influx of prospectors following the discovery of mineral wealth in the region, which led to increased tensions and conflicts .
Apache Wars: The Apache Wars were a series of conflicts between the U.S. Army and various Apache tribes from 1849 to 1886. The wars were characterized by Apache raids on settlements and military responses, often involving brutal tactics on both sides .
Key Conflicts
Battle of Pinos Altos (1861): This was a significant engagement during the Apache Wars, involving settlers of the Pinos Altos mining town and Apache warriors led by Mangas Coloradas and Cochise. The Apaches attacked the town due to the settlers' encroachment on their lands. Despite being outnumbered, the settlers, organized into militia units like the "Arizona Guards," managed to repel the Apache attack after intense fighting .
Confederate Involvement: During the American Civil War, the Confederacy sought control over the mineral-rich territories of New Mexico and Arizona. Confederate forces, including local militias, were involved in defending mining towns against Apache attacks. The Confederacy's interest in the region was also driven by the strategic importance of its mineral resources .
U.S. Army's Role
Military Posts and Campaigns: The U.S. Army established military posts along the Mexico border to protect settlers and miners from Apache raids. These posts played a crucial role in the broader military strategy to secure the region's mineral wealth and suppress Apache resistance .
Extermination and Removal Policies: Initially, the U.S. Army pursued a policy of extermination against the Apaches to secure access to mineral resources. This policy later shifted to removing the Apaches to reservations, which continued to fuel conflicts until the eventual surrender of the Apache leaders .
Aftermath
The conflicts over silver and other minerals in New Mexico and Arizona were part of the larger Apache Wars, which ended with the surrender of Geronimo in 1886. These wars had a lasting impact on the region, shaping its demographic and economic landscape
Who was Chief Victorio?
The Apache leader who challenged the silver deposits near Mogollon and was involved in the conflict with James C. Cooney was Chief Victorio. Here are the key details:
Chief Victorio led the Chiricahua Apaches in raids against settlers and miners in the Mogollon area.
In April 1880, Victorio and his warriors conducted a raid known as the "Alma Massacre," during which James C. Cooney was killed.
Cooney had discovered silver ore in the Mogollon Mountains while serving as a sergeant in the 8th U.S. Cavalry. He began working his claim after leaving the Army in 1876.
Victorio's raids were part of a larger conflict known as the Apache Wars, which lasted from 1849 to 1886.
The discovery and exploitation of silver deposits in the area, including Cooney's claim, led to increased tensions between the Apache tribes and the incoming miners and settlers.
Victorio continued his resistance against the encroachment on Apache lands until 1880 when he was killed by the Mexican army.
The conflict between Victorio and the miners exemplifies the broader struggle between the Apache tribes and the expanding mining operations in the region during the late 19th century.